Environmental Chronology of the Maltese Islands

1. Geological Formation (35–5 million years ago)
   
2. Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million – 11,700 years ago)
   
3. Early Holocene & First Human Settlement (ca. 5200 BCE)
   
4. Temple Period (ca. 3600–2500 BCE)
   
5. Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity (2500 BCE–500 CE)
   
6. Medieval Period (500–1530 CE)
   
7. Knights of St. John (1530–1798)
   
8. British Period (1800–1964)
   
9. Post-Independence to Present (1964–2025)

Roman Road at Xemxija leading to the Punico-Roman Apiary

The environmental chronology of the Maltese Islands traces the natural and human-induced changes in landscape, climate, vegetation, and biodiversity from prehistoric times to the present.

Geological Formation (35–5 million years ago)

• Miocene Period: The Maltese Islands were formed from marine sediments when the African and Eurasian plates collided. Layers of limestone (Upper and Lower Coralline, Globigerina) were deposited.
  
• Malta and Gozo were once part of a larger landmass but became islands after sea level changes.

Indepth reading...

Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million – 11,700 years ago)

• Sea levels fluctuated due to glacial and interglacial periods.
  
• Ice Age fauna: Fossil evidence (e.g. Għar Dalam Cave) shows that elephants, hippopotamuses, and deer lived on the islands.
  
• No evidence of human habitation yet.

Indepth reading...

Early Holocene & First Human Settlement (ca. 5200 BCE)

• First human settlers arrived, likely from Sicily.
  
• Start of deforestation and agriculture—clearance of native woodland (e.g. oak and olive) begins.
  
• Erosion begins due to land clearance, marking the first major human environmental impact.

Indepth reading...

Temple Period (ca. 3600–2500 BCE)

• Builders of megalithic temples (e.g. Ħaġar Qim, Mnajdra).
  
• Intensive agriculture and growing population led to further land clearance and soil degradation.
  
• Faunal remains show a decline in large animals, likely due to hunting and habitat loss.

Indepth reading...

Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity (2500 BCE–500 CE)

• Shift to fortified hilltop settlements.
  
• Continued deforestation and soil erosion.
  
• Carthaginians, then Romans, introduced new crops (e.g. vines, olives), irrigation, and terracing systems.
  
• Evidence of quarrying and expansion of rural agriculture.

Indepth reading...

Medieval Period (500–1530 CE)

• Arab rule brought advanced agricultural techniques (qanats, water wheels).
  
• Introduction of citrus, cotton, and almonds.
  
• Continued deforestation and soil erosion, but with more sustainable farming in places.

Indepth reading...

Knights of St. John (1530–1798)

• Urban expansion (e.g. Valletta), construction of fortifications.
  
• Forests further reduced for timber and firewood.
  
• Introduction of exotic plants in gardens.
  
• Marine environment impacted by shipbuilding and port activity.

Indepth reading...

British Period (1800–1964)

• Military and infrastructural development (docks, roads, railways).
  
• Urban sprawl begins.
  
• Increase in population puts pressure on resources.
  
• Quarrying increases for construction; natural habitats decline.

Indepth reading...

Post-Independence to Present (1964–2025)

• Rapid urbanization, tourism, and construction boom.
  
• Agriculture declines, but some conservation efforts begin.
  
• Major environmental issues: overdevelopment, habitat loss, waste, water scarcity, air pollution.
  
• EU accession in 2004 boosted environmental regulations.
  
• Ongoing conservation efforts (e.g. Natura 2000 sites, afforestation, marine protection).

Indepth reading...

Key Environmental Themes Over Time

• Deforestation and land degradation: Began with first settlers, exacerbated over millennia.
  
• Soil erosion: Continuous issue due to topography and land use.
  
• Water scarcity: Always a limiting factor; underground water extraction has ecological impacts.
  
• Biodiversity loss: Native species declined due to habitat loss, hunting, and invasive species.